Classification of documents according to various criteria. Types of statistical observation

Securities can be classified according to the following criteria:

§ lifespan: urgent (short-term, medium-term, long-term and revocable) and unlimited;

§ form of existence: paper (documentary) or paperless (undocumented);

§ Owner registration procedure: personal or bearer;

§ form appeals (transfer order): transferred by agreement of the parties (by delivery, by assignment) or by order (transferred by order of the owner - endorsement);

§ release form: emissive or non-emissive;

§ registration: registered (state registration or registration of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation) and unregistered;

§ nationality: Russian or foreign;

§ type of issuer: state (federal or municipal) and non-state (corporate or private);

§ circulation: market or non-market;

§ Purposes of use: investment (the goal is to generate income) or non-investment (serve turnover for commodity markets);

§ risk level: risk-free or risky (low-risk, medium-risk or high-risk);

§ Availability of accruable income: non-income or income-generating (interest, dividend, discount);

§ denomination: constant or variable.

In accordance with Russian legislation, securities include:

 State and municipal securities

 Bond

 Bill of exchange

 Deposit and savings certificates

 Bank passbook to bearer

 Bill of lading

 Privatization securities

 Warehouse receipt

 Investment share

 Mortgage

 Other documents that are classified as securities by securities laws or in the manner prescribed by them.

· According to the order of ownership and transfer of rights, registered, bearer and order securities are distinguished.

A registered security is a security the name of the owner of which is recorded on its letterhead and in the register of owners.

A bearer security is a security the name of the owner of which is not recorded on itself, and its circulation does not require registration. The transfer of rights under it is carried out by simple delivery.

An order security, for example a certificate of deposit, a bill of exchange, is issued in the name of the first acquirer and may be accompanied by a transfer inscription on the security, with the help of which the rights of claim under the security can be transferred to the person specified in the inscription.

· According to the period of circulation, securities are divided into fixed-term, perpetual and sight-at-sight. Future securities have a lifespan established upon their issue: short-term - up to a year; medium-term - from 1 year to 5 years, long-term - over 5 years. Perpetual securities are shares.

· By legal status securities are divided into emission and non-emission. Issue-grade securities (shares, bonds) placed by issue and having equal volume and terms of exercise of rights within one issue, regardless of the time of acquisition of the security. The issue requires state registration and publication of the issue prospectus - a document containing basic information about the securities being issued and the terms of the issue, about the issuer and about the securities previously issued by it. Non-issue securities (bills, checks, certificates of deposit, etc.) are issued individually or in small series and their issue does not require registration.

· According to the form of issue, securities are divided into documentary, i.e. executed on paper, and non-documentary (paperless, non-cash), existing in the form of entries on personal accounts in the system of maintaining a register of owners or on a securities account in the depository serving the issuer. The development of market relations has led to the emergence of a paperless form of existence of securities. First of all, this is due to the increase in the number of traded securities, especially stocks and bonds. For other securities, the documentary form predominates. Many rights embodied in a security can be exercised regardless of its form. For example, payment of income does not require its presentation; a purchase and sale transaction can be carried out without the presence of it itself as a material carrier of the property rights recorded for it. In the case of a documentary form of issue, the owner is identified on the basis of a properly executed security certificate. An uncertificated security is always a registered and issue-grade security, and in electronic memory it is registered in the name of a specific legal entity or individual. A representative document certifying ownership of a certain number of securities is an extract from the register of owners issued by the registrar. The uncertificated (paperless) form of a security speeds up and simplifies its circulation in terms of settlements, transfer from one owner to another, and eliminates the problems of storage, accounting and taxation. By economic essence securities can be divided into three large classes: basic, derivative and title.

41. Tax system of the Russian Federation

Tax system Russia includes the following elements:

· a mutually agreed set of taxes, fees and payments used in a particular country to finance the state budget and extra-budgetary funds;

· a system of laws, decrees and by-laws regulating the procedure for calculating and paying various taxes, fees and other tax payments to the budget.

Depending on the nature of the government structure, the tax system may include federal (central) taxes, taxes of administrative-territorial entities (or taxes of constituent entities of the Federation) and local taxes and fees. As a rule, within the second and third categories of taxes, taxes that are mandatory and taxes that can be introduced by decision of regional and local authorities are distinguished.

Taxes of administrative-territorial entities and local taxes and fees are credited to the corresponding budgets, and from among federal taxes those that are distributed between budgets of different levels can be distinguished to balance the budget system and subsidize local budgets (a group of regulatory taxes).

Tax system Russian Federation consists of three groups of taxes: federal taxes; regional taxes (taxes of the republics within the Russian Federation, taxes of territories, regions, autonomous regions, autonomous okrugs) and local taxes and fees.

TO federal taxes The Russian Federation currently includes: value added tax (VAT), excise taxes on individual species and groups of goods, tax on transactions with securities, customs duty, deductions for the reproduction of the mineral resource base, payments for the use of natural resources, income tax (profit tax) of enterprises, personal income tax, taxes that serve as sources for the formation of road funds, state duty, tax on property transferred by inheritance and donations, tax on currency purchases.

TO republican taxes include corporate property tax, forest income, payment for water withdrawn industrial enterprises from water management systems, collection for needs educational institutions levied on legal entities.

TO local taxes and fees include property tax for individuals, land tax, registration fee for individuals engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity, which constitute a group of generally mandatory taxes, as well as a number of other taxes and fees (resort fee, license fee for the right to trade in wine and vodka products , tax on the maintenance of housing and facilities social sphere and a number of other taxes, etc.).

42. Essence, role and functions of credit

Credit- a form of movement of loan capital carried out on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment.

Credit ensures the transformation of money capital into loan capital and expresses the relationship between lenders and borrowers. With the help of a loan, free cash capital and income of enterprises, the personal sector and the state are accumulated and converted into loan capital, which is transferred for temporary use for a fee. Loan capital is redistributed between industries, rushing, taking into account market guidelines, into those areas that provide higher profits or are given preference in accordance with national programs for the development of the Russian economy. Credit has an active impact on the volume and structure of the money supply, payment turnover, and the speed of circulation of money; during the period of the Russian Federation’s transition to a market, it creates the basis for accelerating the development of non-cash payments and the introduction of new methods, which helps save circulation costs and increase the efficiency of social reproduction in general. Thanks to credit, there is a faster process of capitalization of profits, and therefore concentration of production.

In conditions market economy The loan performs the following functions:

a) accumulation of temporarily free Money;

b) redistribution of funds on the terms of their subsequent return;

c) creation of credit instruments of circulation (banknotes and treasury notes) and credit operations;

d) regulation of the volume of total monetary turnover.

43. Principles of lending.

Lending principles - principles on the basis of which it is customary to provide a loan to a borrower:

Loan repayment;

Urgency of the loan - compliance with repayment deadlines;

Loan security;

Borrower's creditworthiness - differentiation of loans;

Payment of the loan;

Purpose of the loan.

Lending principles are the fundamental conditions on which a loan is issued to a borrower. These lending principles are:

Urgency;

Returnability;

Payment.

The principle of urgency means that the loan is issued for a clearly specified period. This period is specified in the loan agreement. There are several ways to specify the loan repayment period, namely:

Repayment of the entire amount of principal and interest on it at a fixed rate within clearly established periods of time;

Repayment of the principal amount at clearly defined periods of time, each of which has its own interest rate, i.e. this is a loan with a floating interest rate (rollover);

Return within clearly established periods of time only the amount of interest on the loan and return upon expiration of the loan agreement of the entire amount of the principal debt on the loan;

The time for repayment of the loan and interest on it is not indicated, but only the conditions for their repayment. For example, repayment of a loan upon the lender’s first request (on-call loan), the procedure for repaying a loan (overdraft, contract loan). The maturity of the loan means its repayment.

The principle of loan repayment is that at the end of the loan agreement, the borrowed money must be returned to the lender in full (principal) and with interest. If the loan is not repaid on time, the borrower is charged penalties (that is, penalties), the amount of which is established in the loan agreement. To guarantee the repayment of a financial loan, they use different types ensuring this return.

The main types of loan security are surety, guarantee, collateral, and insurance of the borrower's liability for non-repayment of the loan.

Any business entity (bank, association, enterprise, etc.) can act as a guarantor. A surety is an agreement with unilateral obligations, through which the guarantor undertakes to the creditor to pay, if necessary, the debt of the borrower. The guarantee agreement serves as an addition to the loan agreement and is certified by a notary. A guarantee agreement is used when the borrower is a citizen. A guarantee is a type of surety that applies only between legal entities. Guarantee means the obligation of the guarantor to pay for the guaranteed a certain amount upon the occurrence of a warranty case.

Unlike a guarantee, a guarantee is not an act that supplements the loan agreement. It is issued by a letter of guarantee.

Securing a loan in the form of a surety or guarantee provides for the right of the bank (lender) to unconditionally write off funds in the required amounts from the accounts of the guarantor or guarantor in the event of failure by the borrower to repay the obligation under the loan received within the prescribed period.

44. Forms and types of credit:

1. Bank loan

2. By maturity

· Short-term (up to a year)

· Medium-term (1-3 years)

· Long-term (more than 3 years)

On call loan

3. By payment methods

· One-time

·In installments

4. By methods of collecting loan interest

· % of repayment along with the loan body;

· Flat payments %

5. By lending method:

· One-time loans;

· Providing on time and for the amount provided by the contract

· Credit lines

6. By types of interest rates:

· Loans with a fixed interest rate;

· With a floating interest rate;

· Stepped rates.

7. By number of credits:

· Syndicated;

· Parallel loans

46. Credit system of the Russian Federation

The credit system is a set of various financial and credit institutions operating in the loan capital market and carrying out the accumulation and concentration of money capital

The credit system of the Russian Federation consists of two levels

1. Financial and credit institutions (Central Bank of the Russian Federation, banking credit organizations, specialized non-bank credit institutions);

2. Instruments of credit relations:

· Loan agreement;

· Bill of exchange;

· Bond.

Credit mechanism:

· A system of connections for the accumulation and mobilization of monetary capital between credit institutions and various sectors of the economy;

· Relations related to the redistribution of monetary capital between the credit institutions themselves within the current capital market;

· Relations between credit institutions and foreign clients.

47. Banking system of the Russian Federation

The banking system of the Russian Federation is a collection of various financial and credit institutions operating interconnectedly within the framework of the general monetary mechanism of the country.

In Russia, the banking system has two levels:

2. Commercial bank.

Functions of the Central Bank:

48. Types of banking operations:

· Passive – these are operations aimed at attracting money to the bank, accounts and deposits;

· Active – operations of which the bank is a creditor, placing its available funds.

· Commission and intermediary:

· Cash transactions;

· Factoring;

· Leasing;

· Trust operations.

49. Form of organization and functions of the Central Bank.

Functions of the Central Bank:

· Monopoly issue of banknotes;

· Bank of Banks (does not deal with legal entities) - establishes the minimum ratio of required reserves of commercial banks in the central bank with the banks' liabilities;

· The Central Bank supervises the activities of commercial banks either monopoly or jointly with the Ministry of Finance or other government agency;

· Regulation of the entire monetary system of the country and ensuring the stability of the national currency.

Types of banking operations:

central bank from the point of view of ownership of capital, it happens:

· State (Great Britain, France, Canada, Russia);

· Shareholders (Fed);

· Mixed (Japan).

50. Monetary policy and its instruments

Monetary policy of the Central Bank- a set of measures aimed at changing the money supply in circulation, the volume of loans, the level of interest rates and other indicators of money circulation and credit.

The main methods of monetary policy of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation are formed in Article 35 federal law about the Bank of Russia.

Tools:

· Refinancing rate - financing means the forms, procedure, conditions, terms and limits of lending by the Bank of Russia to commercial banks.

Refinancing is used to regulate liquidity.

A change in the refinancing rate involves a change in the price of additional credit resources provided by the Central Bank to other banks.

· Required reserve standards;

· Operations on open market;

· Establishment of maximum rates for individual operations and transactions;

· Direct restriction of lending;

· Freezing interest rates;

Organizations can be classified according to the following criteria

 form of ownership:

private;
state;
municipal;
public;

 purpose:

production of products;
execution of work;
provision of services;

 latitude production profile:

specialized;
diversified;

 the nature of the combination of science and production;

scientific;
production;
scientific and production;

 number of production stages:

one-stage;
multi-stage;

 location of the enterprise:

on one territory;
at one geographical point;
at different geographical locations.

Classification of enterprises by capital ownership

According to the ownership of capital and, accordingly, control over the enterprise, national, foreign and joint (mixed) enterprises are distinguished.

National enterprise- an enterprise whose capital belongs to entrepreneurs of their country. Nationality is also determined by the location and registration of the main company.

Foreign company- an enterprise whose capital belongs to foreign entrepreneurs, who fully or to a certain extent ensure their control.

Foreign enterprises are formed either by creating a joint stock company or by purchasing controlling stakes in local firms, leading to the emergence of foreign control. The last method was received in modern conditions the most widespread, since it allows the use of existing equipment, connections, clientele and market knowledge of local firms.

Mixed enterprises- enterprises whose capital belongs to entrepreneurs of two or more countries. Registration of a mixed enterprise is carried out in the country of one of the founders on the basis of the legislation in force there, which determines the location of its headquarters. Mixed enterprises are one of the types of international interweaving of capital. Enterprises mixed in capital are called joint ventures in cases where the purpose of their creation is implementation of joint entrepreneurial activity . The forms of companies mixed in capital are very diverse. Most often, international associations are created in the form of mixed companies: cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns.

Multinational enterprises- enterprises whose capital belongs to entrepreneurs from several countries are called multinational. Multinational companies are formed by merging the assets of the merging firms different countries and issuing shares of the newly created company. Other forms of formation of companies mixed in capital are: exchange of shares between companies that retain legal independence; creation of joint companies, the share capital of which belongs to the founders on a parity basis or is distributed in certain proportions established by the legislation of the country of registration; acquisition foreign company a stake in a national firm that does not give it control rights.

In modern conditions, the largest industrial firms focus on creating joint manufacturing enterprises, as well as enterprises for scientific and technical cooperation, including the joint use of patents and licenses, as well as the implementation of agreements on cooperation and specialization of production. Especially numerous joint ventures in new and rapidly growing industries that require huge one-time investments, - in oil refining, petrochemistry, chemical industry, production of plastics, synthetic rubber, aluminum, in nuclear energy. Joint ventures are also created as temporary associations to carry out large contracts for the construction of ports, dams, pipelines, irrigation and transport structures, power plants, railways and so on.

Analysis external environment companies
Analysis of its internal situation
Formation of the company's mission and goals
Selection and development of strategy at the level strategic zone management (SZH), companies
Portfolio Analysis of a Diversified Firm
Design organizational structure
Selecting the degree of integration and control systems
Management of the “strategy - structure - control” complex
Determination of standards of behavior and company policy in certain areas of its activity
Providing feedback on company results and strategy
Improving strategy, structure, management

Main stages strategic management

Determining the scope of business and developing the purpose of the company
Transformation of the purpose of the company into private long-term and short term goals activities
Determining a strategy for achieving business goals
Strategy development and implementation
Assessing performance, monitoring the situation and introducing corrective actions

Organization(from the Greek instrument) is a targeted pool of resources; component management, the essence of which lies in the coordination of actions individual elements system, achieving mutual compliance of the functioning of its parts.

The essence of organization as a management function is to ensure the implementation of organizational decisions, that is, to create such management relationships that ensure the most effective communications all elements of the managed system, including the distribution of responsibilities and powers, as well as the establishment of relationships between different types of work.

Functional basis of the organization

Adaptation of the organizational structure of the company to the objectives of our activities;

Recruiting people for specific work and delegating authority over the use of the organization’s resources;

To successfully implement the function, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the following local principles of organization;

Principles. The organization and its individual units work to achieve a common goal (See Goal setting, Mission);

Elasticity of organization. When defining tasks and responsibilities, an optimal balance must be established between the freedom of action of individual workers and administrative regulations;

Stability. The control system must be built in such a way that its elements are not subject to fundamental changes under the influence of the external and internal environment;

Continuous improvement. It assumes the need for systematic organizational work to improve the process of organizing and implementing decisions;

Direct subordination. Any employee must have one boss;

Scope of control. The manager is able to competently provide and control the work of a limited number of subordinates; unconditional responsibility of the leader for the actions of subordinates;

The proportions of responsibility to these powers;

Exceptions. Decisions of a repetitive nature are relegated to routine ones, the implementation of which is entrusted to lower management levels;

Priority of functions. The control function gives rise to a control organ, and not vice versa. combinations. It is necessary to ensure the most correct combination of centralism and independence. .

Implementation problems

Decisions made individually or by several managers without the involvement of the team sometimes become not just snow on the heads of employees, but a real natural disaster. In such cases, the main thing is to correctly translate a ready-made solution to all levels of the organization. There are three reasons why decisions made by small management teams, are defeated:

1. Loss of communication between the parties. The decision made may be confusing to employees who were not involved in the development process, seem incomprehensible and even threatening. Without information about what facts were considered, what alternatives were discussed, and what difficulties were overcome, they are simply psychologically unprepared to understand what they are being told.

2. Error in the distribution of responsibility. Managers often make mistakes when determining who is responsible for the further translation of the solution they have developed. Some top managers are sincerely convinced that their task is only to find this solution. And whose task is to convey it to the masses remains unclear.

The management process is the activity of management subjects united in a certain system, aimed at achieving the company’s goals by implementing certain functions using management methods.

As a rule, company management processes are very diverse (see Section 3), multidimensional and have a complex structure (consisting of a large number of stages and phases). In a general sense, the control process consists of general control functions that are combined into control cycles (Fig. 23).

See sheets

The quality of management decisions is understood as a set of decision parameters that ensure their successful implementation. The properties of management decisions include the following:

validity as the need to take into account the entire set of factors and conditions associated with the development of a solution. This is its comprehensive balance in terms of deadlines, resources and goals: if the goals are chosen incorrectly, the error will manifest itself quickly and adjustments can be made easily. Performers must be convinced that the decision is justified;
timeliness as the need to overcome, eliminate, mitigate the emerging contradiction. The timeliness of a decision is determined by the stage at which it is made: at the very beginning, when the conflict is just emerging and can be eliminated without great expense; during the period when it has matured and acquired acute, open forms and large losses and costs are already inevitable, or at the stage when nothing can be changed and all that remains is to count the losses and punish the “switchers”;
the cost-effectiveness of the solution means high final results with at the lowest cost, materialization of advanced management concept in choosing strategic directions, driving forces and deadlines;
efficiency, i.e. decision-making should most fully ensure the achievement of the organization’s goal;
feasibility, i.e. the decision must be realistically feasible, and unrealistic abstract decisions cannot be made. The decision made must correspond to the strengths and means of the team implementing it.

Additional parameters-requirements may be the following: consistency, specificity, eligibility, etc.

These properties of management decisions allow us to objectively answer the following questions:

what to do (what new consumer needs need to be satisfied or at what quality level should old needs be satisfied)?
how to do it (using what technology)?
with which production costs do?
in what quantity and within what time frame?
where (place, production room, staff)?
to whom to supply and at what price?
What will this give to the investor and society as a whole?

The objective economic conditions for the development of quality management decisions are as follows:

knowledge by the leader, manager of objective trends in the development of a management object and the ability to use them for the benefit of the organization;
orientation in common goals development of the economy of the country, region, city and, based on this, determining the specific tasks of their organization;
the ability to respond in a timely manner to a changing situation and to new challenges put forward by the market, economic policy of the state, region, etc.

The quality level of management decisions is influenced by two groups of factors:

factors of a situational nature associated with awareness of the problem: they act before making a decision and consist in the ability to formulate a problem and predict the consequences;
behavioral factors: manager’s management style, political and socio-economic environment, social and legal norms, motives and interests, qualifications and personal characteristics leader.

In achieving the effectiveness of decisions, a special role is played by methods of communicating decisions made to the executor.

1. The role of management decisions in management.

For a manager, decision making is a constant and very responsible job. The need to make decisions permeates everything that a leader at any level does, formulating goals and achieving them. Since the decisions made affect not only the manager, but also other people and in many cases the entire organization, understanding the nature and essence of decision making is extremely important for anyone who wants to succeed in the field of management.

Ultimately management decision appears as a result management activities in a broader sense, management decision is considered as the main type managerial work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent management actions that ensure the implementation of management tasks.

They can be classified according to numerous criteria. However, the determining factor is the conditions in which the decision is made. Usually decisions are made in an environment of certainty, risk, and uncertainty.

Under conditions of certainty, the manager is relatively confident in the results of each of the alternatives.

In an environment of risk (uncertainty), the most a manager can do is determine the probability of success for each alternative.

In this case important has its own culture, values and traditions of the organization. Employees are exposed to the culture of the organization and therefore do not consider options to address it.

There are other criteria for classifying management decisions:

· according to the duration of the consequences of the decision: long-, medium- and short-term;

· by frequency of adoption: one-time (random) and recurring;

· by breadth of coverage: general (affecting all employees) and highly specialized;

· according to the form of preparation: individual, group and collective decisions;

· in terms of complexity, simple and complex;

· according to the rigidity of regulation: contour, structured and algorithmic.

Contour decisions only approximately indicate the scheme of action of subordinates and give them wide scope for choosing techniques and methods for their implementation.

Structured ones involve strict regulation of the actions of subordinates. Initiative on their part can only manifest itself in resolving secondary issues.

Algorithmic - extremely strictly regulate the activities of subordinates and practically exclude their initiative.

Of particular interest is the classification of management decisions given by M. Meskon, M. Albert and F. Khedouri, who distinguish organizational, intuitive and rational decisions.

An organizational decision is a choice that a manager must make in order to fulfill the responsibilities of his position. The purpose of an organizational decision is to ensure movement towards the goals set for the organization.

Organizational decisions can be divided into two groups:

In the programmed solution the number possible alternatives limited and the choice must be made within the boundaries of the directions given by the organization.

Unprogrammed decisions are decisions that require new situations to a certain extent, they are not internally constructed or involve unknown factors. Unprogrammed decisions include decisions on the following questions: what should be the goals of the organization? how to improve products? how to improve the structure? and so on.

In practice, few management decisions turn out to be programmed or unprogrammed in their pure form. In fact, the process of making organizational decisions is very closely related to the process of managing the organization as a whole.

In the literature, classifications of management decisions are based on a variety of bases. One of the classifications of A.I. Prigogine is to take into account the contribution of the subject of the decision to organizational transformations. According to the author, all management decisions in an organization can be divided into:

1) strictly conditioned (deterministic)

2) decisions that are weakly dependent on the subject.

The first usually include either so-called standardized decisions (due to the above-adopted instructions and orders), or secondarily determined by the location of the higher organization. This type of decisions practically does not depend on the qualities and orientation of the leader.

Another type of decisions is the so-called proactive decisions, where the qualities of a leader leave a serious imprint on the nature of the decisions made. These include decisions related to both local changes in the organization (reward, punishment) and changes in the mechanisms, structure, and goals of the organization. An initiative decision is usually considered as a choice of behavioral alternative from several possible ones, each of which entails a number of positive and negative consequences. Among the factors influencing the quality of decisions are: the competence of the staff, the business and personal qualities of the manager, his role (official, functional, group, civil, family) positions.

Among the listed factors, a large place is given to the problem of reliability of communication information and interference that occurs during the transmission of information. Among the last great place is given to provisions related to the specific role position and interests of those who process information in the process of its passage from the lower tiers of the organization to the subject of the decision.

One of the important factors influencing the quality of management decisions is the number of tiers in the organization, an increase in which leads to distortion of information when preparing a decision, distortion of orders coming from the subject of management, and increases the sluggishness of the organization.

A management decision is a directive act of targeted influence on a management object, based on the analysis of reliable data characterizing a specific management situation, determining the purpose of action, and containing a program for achieving the goal. Management decisions vary:
- time management for strategic, tactical, operational;
- according to the degree of participation of specialists: individual, collective, collegial;
- according to the content of the management process into social, economic, organizational, technical.

Table 6.2

Classification of management decisions

№	Classification feature	Groups of management decisions
1.	Recurrence rate of the problem	traditional atypical
2.	Significance of the goal	strategic tactical
3.	Sphere of influence	global local
4.	Duration of implementation	long-term short-term
5.	Predicted consequences of the decision	adjustable uncorrectable
6.	Nature of information used	deterministic probabilistic
7.	Solution development method	formalized informal
8.	Number of selection criteria	Single-criteria multi-criteria
9.	Acceptance form	individual collegial
10.	Method of fixing the solution	documented undocumented

The degree of recurrence of the problem. Depending on the recurrence of the problem that requires a solution, all management decisions can be divided into traditional, repeatedly encountered previously in management practice, when it is only necessary to make a choice from existing alternatives, and atypical, non-standard solutions, when their search is associated primarily with the generation of new alternatives .

The significance of the goal. Decision-making can pursue its own, independent goal or be a means to help achieve a higher-order goal. In accordance with this, decisions can be strategic and tactical.

Sphere of influence. The outcome of the decision may affect one or more parts of the organization. In this case, the solutions can be considered local. Decisions, however, can also be made with the aim of influencing the work of the organization as a whole, in which case it will be global.

Duration of implementation. Implementation of the solution may take several hours, days or months. If between the adoption of a decision and the completion of its implementation there will be a relatively short term– a short-term solution. At the same time, the number and importance of long-term, long-term solutions, the results of which may be delayed for several years, are increasingly increasing.

Predicted consequences of the decision. Most management decisions in the process of their implementation, one way or another, can be adjusted in order to eliminate any deviations or take into account new factors, i.e. adjustable. At the same time, there are also decisions whose consequences are irreversible.

Nature of information used. Depending on the degree of completeness and reliability of the information available to the manager, management decisions can be deterministic (made under conditions of certainty) or probabilistic (made under conditions of risk or uncertainty). These decisions play extremely important role when making a decision. Deterministic decisions are made under conditions of certainty, when the manager has almost complete and reliable information regarding the problem being solved, this allows him to know exactly the results of each of the alternative choices. There is only one such result, and the probability of its occurrence is close to one. However, few decisions are made under conditions of certainty. Most management decisions are probabilistic.

Decisions made under conditions of risk or uncertainty are called probabilistic. Decisions made under risk conditions include those whose results are not certain, but the probability of each result is known. Probability is defined as the degree of possibility of a given event occurring and varies from zero to one. The sum of the probabilities of all alternatives must be equal to one. The probability can be determined using mathematical methods based on statistical analysis of experimental data. The probability calculated on the basis of information that allows making a statistically reliable forecast is called objective.

A decision is made under conditions of uncertainty, when due to a lack of information it is impossible to quantify the likelihood of its possible results. This is quite common when solving new, atypical problems, when the factors that need to be taken into account are so new and or complex that it is impossible to obtain enough information about them. Uncertainty is also characteristic of some decisions that have to be made in rapidly changing situations. As a result, the probability of a certain alternative cannot be assessed with a sufficient degree of reliability.

When faced with uncertainty, a manager can use two main options:

try to obtain additional information and once again analyze the problem in order to reduce its novelty and complexity. Combined with experience and intuition, this enables him to evaluate the subjective, perceived probability of possible outcomes;

when there is not enough time and/or funds to collect additional information, when making a decision you have to rely on past experience and intuition.

Solution development method. Some solutions, usually typical and repetitive, can be successfully formalized, i.e. accepted according to a predetermined algorithm. In other words, formalized is the result of performing a predetermined sequence of actions. Formalization of decision making increases management efficiency. Resulting in reduced error rates and time savings: no need to re-develop a solution every time a relevant situation arises.

At the same time, in the process of managing organizations, new, atypical situations and non-standard problems are often encountered that cannot be resolved formally. In such cases, the manager’s intellectual abilities, talent and personal initiative play a big role.

In practice, most solutions occupy an intermediate position between these two extremes, allowing both personal initiative and the use of formal procedures in the process of their development.

Number of selection criteria. If the choice of the best alternative is made according to only one criterion, then the decision made will be simple, single-criteria. Conversely, when the chosen alternative must satisfy several criteria simultaneously, the decision will be complex, multi-criteria.

Acceptance form. The person making the choice from the available alternatives for the final decision can be one person and his decision will be accordingly sole. However, in modern management practice, complex situations are increasingly encountered.

Ticket 67

The basis for making effective management decisions is quality information. Features of management decisions:

validity;

timeliness;

complexity of the approach;

legality;

clear formulation of tasks;

feasibility of execution;

continuity and inconsistency in relation to previously made decisions.

Since a manager is forced to constantly make decisions during his activities, he accumulates certain experience in this area. Therefore, we can talk about control technology, i.e. a certain system of actions in the field of management when solving any problems.

In many ways, management technology depends on the personal qualities of the leader, his national characteristics, and management features adopted in a particular country.

A management decision is a creative act of the subject of management aimed at eliminating problems that have arisen in the object of management. Any management decision goes through three stages. Let's look at them.

The first stage - understanding the problem - includes: collecting information; information analysis; clarification of its relevance; determining the conditions under which the problem will be solved.

The second stage - drawing up a solution plan - includes: developing alternative solutions; comparing them with available resources; assessment of alternative options based on social consequences; assessing them according to economic efficiency; drawing up solution programs; development of a detailed solution plan.

The third stage - implementation of the decision - includes: bringing decisions to specific executors; development of incentive and punishment measures; control over the implementation of decisions.

The manager’s work on decision making consists of a number of stages: determining the management goal; diagnosing the problem; collection of information, both basic and additional; defining criteria and limitations; preparation of solutions, including alternatives; assessment of solution options; selection of the final option.

Decision making is the main link - this is the creative stage.

But making a decision is half the battle. No less important for a manager is the ability to organize execution decision taken, check it.

Decision making is made by the manager and is the definition of the range of actions control system or its divisions to achieve the goals and objectives managed by the system.

So, a management decision is the choice of the best alternative from a number of possible ones, which involves a set of effective actions to improve the organization of enterprise management.

Ticket 68

Ticket 69

The communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people. There are four basic elements in the communication process:

A) sender - a person who generates ideas or collects information and transmits it;

b) message - actual information encoded using symbols;

V) channel, i.e. means of transmitting information;

G) recipient - the person(s) to whom the information is intended.

Classification of communications in the management process

Internal communications- This is communication within the enterprise, between different employees. Internal communications are divided into:

a) upward communication is the process of transferring information from performers (subordinates) to the manager. b) downward communication is the process of communication between a manager and his subordinates.

V) horizontal communications is the process of information exchange between employees of the same level.

In addition to the division into internal and external, communications are divided into verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal communication is the process of communication using words, which can be written and oral. Non-verbal communication is communication through facial expressions and gestures , poses, glances (it’s not for nothing that the expression “talking gaze” is found).

They also differentiate by means speech communication(written or oral), paralinguistic communication (gesture, facial expressions, melody) and material-sign communication (product samples, visual arts).

Ticket 70

The main goal of communication is to ensure mutual understanding of people participating in information exchange. However, the mere fact of exchanging information does not guarantee the effectiveness of communication. Quite often the message being conveyed is misunderstood and, therefore, the communication is ineffective. In order to better understand the essence of the information exchange process and the conditions for its effectiveness, let us consider the main elements and stages of the communication process.

In the process of information exchange, they distinguish four elements.

1. Sender, a person who plans to convey information (idea, message) or express emotions, feelings.

2. Message, actual information, a clearly formulated thought, encoded using symbols. The meaning and significance of a message represents the sender's ideas, facts, values, feelings and attitudes. In this case, the sender expects that the message will be received with the same value that is included in it.

3. Channel, means of transmitting information. With its help, it is directed to a specified destination. Channels can be phone line, radio wave, air transmitting oral speech, computer networks, channels for delivering written correspondence, etc. If a channel connects more than two organizational units at the time of transmission or exchange of information, it forms an information network.

4. Recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

Here are the stages.
1. Generating an idea.
2. Encoding and channel selection.
3. Transfer.
4. Decoding.

Ticket 71

What is the importance of feedback and information noise in the communication process?

When there is feedback, the sender and receiver switch communication roles. The original receiver becomes the sender and goes through all the stages of the communication process to convey his response to the initial sender, who now plays the role of the receiver. Business communication expert Professor Philip Lewis writes: “Feedback is ground reaction force on what is heard, read or seen; information (verbal or non-verbal) is sent back to the sender, indicating the degree of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with the message. Effective information exchange must be two-way: Feedback is necessary to understand to what extent the message was received and understood... A leader cannot think that everything he says or writes will be understood exactly as he intended. A leader who relies on such a false assumption cuts himself off from reality. A manager who does not provide feedback to the recipient of information will find that the effectiveness of his management actions is sharply reduced. Likewise, if feedback from employees is blocked, the manager will end up isolated or deceived.” Ticket 72 Main barriers on the way interpersonal communications

: * barriers of perception - ambiguity in the interpretation of the meaning of the message, which depends on differences in individual contexts. Most often this manifests itself in the form of conflicts between spheres of competence and barriers caused by people’s attitudes; * semantic barriers - ambiguity in the interpretation of the semantic shades of words, paralinguistic (intonation, tone, speed) and non-verbal factors of speech (gestures, facial expressions, posture, gaze); * feedback barriers - ineffective feedback that does not provide the sender with sufficient information about the correct perception of his message; * inability to listen - people are more often focused on expressing their own inner world than on perceiving and analyzing external information.

Ticket 73

Information is understood as a set of information and signals about processes and phenomena occurring in the external environment and the human body itself.

Management information is a collection of information about the state and processes occurring inside and outside the organization. Information about management objects and the events and processes occurring in them is not without reason called a kind of model, as well as a verbal or digital portrait.

When characterizing information, the following indicators are used: volume, reliability, value, richness, openness.

According to the method of attaching the rudder blade to the ship's hull, rudders are distinguished:
a) simple - with a support on the lower end of the steering wheel or with many supports on the rudder post;
b) semi-suspended - with support on a special bracket at one intermediate point along the height of the rudder blade;

c) suspended - hanging on a stock.

According to the position of the axis of rotation relative to the rudder blade, the following rudders are distinguished:
a) pebalapsic - with an axis located at the leading (incoming) edge of the feather;

The ratio of the area of the balance (bow) part to the entire area of the rudder is called the compensation coefficient, which for sea vessels lies in the range of 0.20--0.35, and for river vessels 0.10--0.25.

The steering gear is a mechanism that transmits forces developed in steering motors and machines to the steering wheel.

The steering gear on ships is driven by electric or electro-hydraulic motors. On ships less than 60 m in length, it is permitted to install manual drives instead of a machine. The power of the steering machine is selected based on the calculation of shifting the rudder to a maximum angle of up to 35° from side to side in 30 seconds.

The steering gear is designed to transmit commands from the navigator from the wheelhouse to the steering machine in the tiller compartment. Electric or hydraulic transmissions are most commonly used. On small ships, roller or cable drives are used; in the latter case, this drive is called a steering cable drive.

Classification of ship's rudders depending on the method of fastening them to the hull and the location of the axis of rotation: a - unbalanced; b--balanced. 1 -- simple; 2 -- semi-suspended; 3 -- suspended.

c) balanced - with an axis located in the same way as that of a semi-balanced rudder, but with the area of the balancing part of the feather spanning the entire height of the rudder.

Control devices monitor the position of the steering wheels and the proper operation of the entire device.

Control devices transmit orders to the helmsman when steering the steering wheel manually. The steering gear is one of the most important devices ensuring the survivability of the vessel.

In case of an accident, the steering device has a backup steering control station, consisting of a steering wheel and a manual drive located in the tiller compartment or close to it.

At low speeds of the vessel, the steering devices become insufficiently effective and sometimes make the vessel completely uncontrollable.

Active steering wheel: a -- with bevel gear to propeller; b - with a water-powered electric motor.

To increase maneuverability, some types of modern vessels (fishing vessels, tugboats, passenger and special vessels and ships) are equipped with active rudders, rotary nozzles, thrusters or winged propulsors. These devices allow ships to independently perform complex maneuvers on the open sea, as well as to navigate through narrow areas without auxiliary tugs, enter the waters of the roadstead and harbor and approach berths, turn around and depart from them, saving time and money.

The active rudder (Fig. 56) is a streamlined rudder blade, on the trailing edge of which there is an attachment with a propeller driven by a bevel shaft transmission passing through a hollow stock and rotating from an electric motor mounted on the head of the stock. There is a type of active steering wheel with propeller rotation from a water-based electric motor (working in water) mounted in the rudder blade.

When the active rudder is moved on board, the propeller operating in it creates a stop that turns the stern relative to the axis of rotation of the vessel. When the active rudder propeller operates while the ship is moving, the speed of the ship increases by 2-3 knots. When the main engines are stopped, the operation of the active rudder propeller provides the vessel with a slow speed of up to 5 knots.

A rotating nozzle installed instead of the rudder, when placed on board, deflects the jet of water thrown by the propeller, the reaction of which causes the stern end of the vessel to turn. Rotary nozzles are mainly used on river vessels.

Thrusters are usually made in the form of tunnels passing through the hull, in the plane of the frames, in the stern and bow ends of the vessel. The tunnels are located propeller screw, a winged or water-jet propulsion device that creates jets of water, the reactions of which, directed from opposite sides, turn the ship. When the stern and bow devices operate on one side, the vessel moves with a log (perpendicular to the centerline plane of the vessel), which is very convenient when the vessel approaches or departs from the wall.

Wing propellers installed at the ends of the hull also increase the maneuverability of the vessel.

The submarine's steering device provides more diverse maneuverability. The device is intended to ensure controllability of submarines in horizontal and vertical planes.

Control of a submarine in a horizontal plane ensures that the boat floats along a given course and is carried out by vertical and rudders, the area of which is slightly larger than the area of rudders of surface vessels and is determined within 2-3% of the area of the immersed part of the center plane of the boat.

Control of the submarine in the vertical plane at a given depth is ensured using horizontal rudders.

The steering device of horizontal rudders consists of two pairs of rudders with their drives and gears. The rudders are made in pairs, that is, on one horizontal stock there are two identical rudder blades located on the sides of the boat. Horizontal rudders can be stern or bow, depending on their location along the length of the boat. The area of the aft horizontal rudders is 1.2-1.6 times larger than the area of the bow rudders. Thanks to this, the efficiency of the stern horizontal rudders is 2-3 times higher than the efficiency of the bow ones. To increase the moment created by the stern horizontal rudders, they are usually located behind the propellers.

Forward horizontal rudders on modern submarines are auxiliary; they are made to collapse and are installed in the bow superstructure above the waterline so as not to create additional resistance and not interfere with steering the boat using the stern horizontal rudders at high underwater speeds.

Usually, at full and medium underwater speed, the submarine is controlled using only the stern horizontal rudders.

At low speeds, controlling the boat with the stern horizontal rudders becomes impossible. The speed at which the boat loses control is called inversion speed. At this speed, the boat must be controlled simultaneously by the stern and bow horizontal rudders.

Due to the fact that there is an engine room between the wheelhouse and the tiller compartment, it becomes necessary to use two guide blocks on each side. A steel cable with a diameter is used as a steering rope. We accept the sector radius. Drum rope radius.

Torque on drum:

Since the drum rotates on two bearings, it is necessary to add 1% for loss at friction angles: .

According to the rules of the Maritime Register of Shipping, the force on the steering wheel should not exceed 0.12 kN, therefore:

In order to reduce the radius of the steering wheel, it makes sense to reduce the radius of the steering wheel drum:

baller rudder ship

Strength calculation of components and parts of the steering mechanism.

Design loads.

The schematic diagram of the steering mechanism is shown in Fig.

Conditional minimum moment acting on the steering mechanism.

In further calculations, instead of load F, F3 is taken, and the value of F2 is taken equal to zero.

Lateral force on stock:

Design bending moment:

Design bending moment

The rudder stock as a first approximation.

Calculation of rudder blade elements.

Thickness of outer skin.

0.35 lengths from the spout

0.65 lengths from the tail

Minimum sheathing thickness:

We accept the thickness of the rudder trim

Thickness of rudder fins and diaphragms.

The thickness of the ribs and diaphragms is assumed to be equal to the thickness of the skin

Straightening the conditional belts provides an additional margin of safety.

Moment of inertia:

Moment of resistance:

Design bending moment

Design bending moment:

Design reaction of support 2.

Design reaction of support 4.

The calculated bending moment acting in any section of the stock.

1) by issuer groups . Typically there are three groups:

State,

Private sector,

Foreign entities.

Government securities are issued and guaranteed by the government, ministries and departments or municipal authorities.

Private sector securities are usually divided into corporate and private. Corporate securities are issued by non-state enterprises and organizations. Private securities can be issued by individuals (for example, promissory notes or checks).

Foreign securities are issued by non-residents of the country. Securities can be divided into registered and bearer. The name of the owner of the security is registered in a special register maintained by the issuer or an external independent registrar. A bearer security is not registered in the name of the owner with the issuer.

2) By economic nature valuable papers . In this case, the following stand out:

Certificates of ownership (stocks, checks, cash)
certificates);

Loan certificates (bonds, bills);

Contracts for future transactions (futures, options).

All these three types of securities exist and circulate in Russia 3) by nature of income . In this case, the following are distinguished:

- securities with non-fixed income- these are, first of all, shares, i.e. securities certifying ownership of a share in the capital of a joint-stock company and giving the right to receive part of the profit in the form of a dividend. By Russian legislation share - an issue-grade security that secures the rights of its owner (shareholder) to receive part of the profit of a joint-stock company in the form of dividends and to participate in management joint stock company and for part of the property remaining after its liquidation.

- fixed income securities(they are also called
debt obligations) are represented by bonds, deposits and
savings certificates, checks and bills.

In addition, the following types of securities are distinguished:

Bonds - debt obligations of the state, local authorities
municipalities, enterprises, various funds and organizations

usually produced in large quantities. They are evidence that the body that issued them is a debtor and undertakes to pay interest on it to the owner of the bond for a certain time, and upon the maturity of the payment, to repay its debt to the owner of the bond. In either case, the bond represents debt, and the holder is a creditor (but not a co-owner like a shareholder). According to Russian legislation, a bond is an issue-grade security that secures the right of the holder of this security to receive from the issuer of the bond, within a specified period, its nominal value and the percentage of this value fixed in it or other property equivalent.

Certificate of Deposit - a financial document issued by credit institutions. It is the institution's certificate of deposit of funds, certifying the depositor's right to receive the deposit. There are different certificates of deposit on demand and time ones, which indicate the period for withdrawal of the deposit and the amount of interest due. Certificates of deposit are widely accepted by investors, various companies and institutions.

Savings certificate - written commitment to

depositing funds an individual in a credit institution, certifying the depositor’s right to receive a deposit and interest on it. There are savings certificates, registered and bearer.

Check - monetary document established form, containing an unconditional order from the drawer to the credit institution to pay its holder the amount specified in the check. As a rule, the payer of a check is a bank or other credit institution that has such right.

Bill of exchange - an unsecured promise to pay a debt and interest on it when due. This type of securities ranks last among

debt obligations of the company. Like checks, promissory notes are also issued by private individuals.

Government securities - These are government debt obligations. They differ in issue dates, maturity dates, sizes interest rate. In a certain sense, this is an alternative to money creation and, therefore, inflation in the event of a government budget deficit.

Currently, in most countries there are several types of government securities in circulation:

1) treasury bills with a maturity period of, as a rule, 91 days;

2) treasury bonds with a maturity of up to 10 years;

3) Treasury bonds with maturities from 10 to 30 years.

These types of securities are issued for short-, medium- and long-term lending government debt. Accordingly, interest payments on them also differ. So, in the USA in the 90s. they amounted to: for treasury bills - about 6%, for treasury bonds - about 1% .

In Russia since the 90s. are produced:

Government short-term zero-coupon bonds (GKOs) since 1993. The issuer is the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. GKOs are issued for periods of 3, 6 and 12 months. and are placed through institutions of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

Treasury obligations (KOs) in non-documentary form in the form of an entry in accounts, just like T-bills;

Federal loan bonds (OFZ) since 1995, circulating in unified system together with GKO in non-cash form, with a variable coupon interest and a validity period of more than one year;

State savings loan bonds (GSLO) to bearer since 1995, intended mainly for the population;

Domestic bonds foreign currency loan(OVVZ), which are a means of restructuring domestic foreign currency debt.

Along with the central government and its agencies, local governments issue securities for debt financing. This is a different type of securities - municipal bonds. Like other bonds, they represent obligations to repay a debt by a certain date with the payment of fixed interest. Municipal bonds are also issued in Russia.

Statistical observation- it is massive (it covers a large number of cases of manifestation of the phenomenon under study in order to obtain truthful statistical data), systematic (carried out according to a developed plan, including issues of methodology, organization of collection and control of the reliability of information), systematic (carried out systematically, either continuously or regularly), scientifically organized (to increase the reliability of the data, which depends on the observation program, the content of the questionnaires, the quality of the preparation of instructions) observation of the phenomena and processes of socio-economic life, which consists of collecting and recording individual characteristics for each unit of the population.

Stages of statistical observation

Preparation for statistical observation(solving scientific, methodological, organizational and technical issues).

determination of the purpose and object of observation;
determining the composition of features to be registered;
development of documents for data collection;
selection and training of personnel to conduct surveillance;

2. Collection of information

direct filling of statistical forms (forms, questionnaires);

Statistical information is primary data on the state of socio-economic phenomena, formed in the process statistical observation, which are then systematized, summarized, analyzed and generalized.

The composition of information is largely determined by the needs of society in this moment. Changes in forms of ownership and methods of regulating the economy led to changes in the policy of statistical observation. If earlier information was available only to government agencies, now it is in most cases publicly available. The main consumers of statistical information are the government, commercial structures, international organizations and the public.

Specially organized surveillance

It consists of obtaining data that, for one reason or another, was not included in the reporting or to verify reporting data. Represents the collection of data through censuses and one-time counts.

It is based on maintaining a statistical register, with the help of which continuous statistical accounting is carried out for long-term processes that have a fixed beginning, stage of development and a fixed end.

Forms of statistical research	Types of statistical observations		Methods for obtaining statistical information
Forms of statistical research	by data recording time	by completeness of coverage of population units	Methods for obtaining statistical information
Statistical reporting	Current observation	Continuous observation	Direct observation
Specially organized observation: census one-time accounting	Intermittent observation: One-time observation Periodic observation	Anecdotal observation: selective Monographic observation main array method moment observation method	Documentary
Register surveillance			forwarding method self-registration method correspondent method Questionnaire method Appearance method

Types of statistical observation

Statistical observations are divided into types according to the following criteria:

by time of data recording;
by completeness of coverage;

Types of statistical observation by registration time:

Ongoing (continuous) surveillance— carried out to study current phenomena and processes. Facts are recorded as they occur. (registration of family marriages and divorces)

Intermittent observation- carried out as necessary, while temporary gaps in data recording are allowed:

Periodic observation - carried out at relatively equal intervals of time (population census).

One-time observation - carried out without observing strict frequency.

Based on the completeness of coverage of population units, the following types of statistical observation are distinguished:

Continuous observation— represents the collection and receipt of information about all units of the population being studied. It is characterized by high material and labor costs and insufficient information efficiency. It is used in the population census, when collecting data in the form of reporting, covering large and medium-sized enterprises of various forms of ownership.

Partial observation- based on the principle of random selection of units of the population being studied, while all types of units present in the population must be represented in the sample population. It has a number of advantages over continuous observation: reduction of time and money costs.

Continuous observation is divided into:

Selective observation- based on a random selection of units that are observed.
Monographic observation— consists of examining individual units of a population characterized by rare qualitative properties. An example of monographic observation: characteristics of the work of individual enterprises to identify shortcomings in work or development trends.
Main Array Method- consists of studying the most essential, most large units aggregates that have the greatest specific gravity in the population being studied.
Momentary Observation Method— consists of conducting observations at random or constant intervals of time with notes on the state of the object under study at one time or another.

Methods of statistical observation

Ways to obtain statistical information:

Direct statistical observation- observation in which the registrars themselves, by direct measurement, weighing, and counting, establish the fact to be recorded.

Documentary observation- based on the use of various types of accounting documents.
Includes reporting method of observation - in which enterprises represent statistical reports about their activities in a strictly mandatory manner.

Survey- consists of obtaining the necessary information directly from the respondent.

The following types of survey exist:

Expeditionary— registrars receive the necessary information from the persons being interviewed and record it in the forms themselves.

Self-registration method— the forms are filled out by the respondents themselves, the registrars only hand out the forms and explain the rules for filling them out.

Correspondent— information is provided to the relevant authorities by a staff of voluntary correspondents.

Questionnaire— information is collected in the form of questionnaires, which are special questionnaires, convenient in cases where it is not required high accuracy results.

Private- consists of providing information to the relevant authorities in person.

Errors in statistical observation

Information obtained during statistical observation may not correspond to reality, and the calculated values of indicators may not correspond to actual values.

The discrepancy between the calculated value and the actual value is called observation error.

Depending on the causes of occurrence there are distinguished registration errors and representativeness errors. Registration errors are typical for both continuous and non-continuous observations, and representativeness errors are typical only for non-continuous observations. Registration errors, like representativeness errors, can be random and systematic.

Registration errors- represent deviations between the value of the indicator obtained during statistical observation and its actual value. Registration errors can be random (the result of random factors - for example, strings are mixed up) and systematic (they appear constantly).

Representativeness errors- arise when the selected population does not accurately reproduce the original population. They are characteristic of incomplete observation and consist in the deviation of the value of the indicator of the studied part of the population from its value in the general population.

Random errors- are the result of random factors.

Systematic errors- always have the same tendency to increase or decrease the indicator for each observation unit, as a result of which the value of the indicator for the population as a whole will include the accumulated error.

Control methods:

Counting (arithmetic) - checking the correctness of an arithmetic calculation.
Logical - based on the semantic relationship between features.