The class system of social stratification. Types of stratification systems. Caste stratification system

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Social stratification

INTRODUCTION

Stratification:

1. Social differentiation and inequality based on criteria such as social prestige, self-identification, profession, income, education, participation in power relations, etc.

2. Stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time. Moreover, social inequality is reproduced in fairly stable forms as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society.

Most societies are organized in such a way that their institutions unequally distribute benefits and responsibilities among different categories of people and social groups. Sociologists call social stratification the arrangement of individuals and groups from top to bottom along horizontal layers, or strata, based on inequality in income, level of education, amount of power, and professional prestige. From this point of view, the social order is not neutral, but serves to achieve the goals and interests of some people and social groups more than others.

The question "who gets what and why?" always interested in humanity. The earliest Jewish prophets in 800 BC, in particular Amos, Micah, and Isaiah, invariably condemned the wealthy and powerful members of society. Micah, for example, blamed them for taking over the fields and houses of their neighbors; were “violent,” demanded bribes, and performed dishonest and treacherous acts. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle, discussed at length the institution of private property and slavery. In his dialogue "The State" in 370 BC. NS. Plato wrote: "Any city, no matter how small it may be, is actually divided into two halves: one for the poor, the other for the rich, and they are at war with each other." In the Indian Laws of Manu, compiled around 200 BC, a description of the creation of the world is given in which social inequality is considered to be sent by the gods for the common good.

Thus, polar opposite views of social stratification are known: some, like Micah and Plato, criticized the existing distribution system, others, like the Brahmins, supported it.

In real life, human inequality plays a huge role. Inequality- a specific form of social differentiation, in which individual individuals, strata, classes are at different levels of the vertical social hierarchy, have unequal life chances and opportunities to satisfy needs. Inequality- this is the criterion by which we can place some groups above or below others. Social structure arises in relation to the social division of labor, and social stratification - in relation to the social distribution of the results of labor, i.e. social benefits.

1. MODELSSOCIAL STRATIFICATION

social stratification society inequality

1.1 Social differentiation

Social stratification is based on social differentiation, but is not identical to it.

Social differentiation- dismemberment of the social whole or its part into interrelated elements that appear as a result of evolution, the transition from simple to complex. Differentiation primarily includes the division of labor, the emergence of various professions, statuses, roles, groups. Social differentiation is the process of the emergence of functionally specialized institutions and the division of labor. At the dawn of their history, people discovered that the separation of functions and labor increases the efficiency of society, therefore, in all societies, there is a division of statuses and roles. At the same time, members of society should be distributed within the social structure in such a way that various statuses are filled and their respective roles are performed.

1.2 Open andclosed stratification systems

Distinguish between open and closed systems of stratification. A social structure, members of which can change their status relatively easily, called an open stratification system. The structure, whose members can change their status with great difficulty, is called a closed stratification system. A somewhat similar distinction is reflected in the concepts of achieved and prescribed status: achieved statuses are acquired by individual choice and competition, while prescribed statuses are given by a group or society.

In open systems of stratification, each member of society can change their status, rise or fall on the social ladder based on their own efforts and abilities.

An example of a closed system of stratification is the caste organization of India (it functioned until 1900).

Traditionally, Hindu society was divided into castes, and people inherited social status at birth from their parents and could not change it during life. In India, there were thousands of castes, but they were all grouped into four main ones: the Brahmins, or the caste of priests, numbering about 3% of the population; the kshatriyas, the descendants of warriors, and the vaisyas, the merchants, who together constituted about 7% of the Indians; sudras, peasants and artisans - about 70% of the population, the remaining 20% are Harijans, or untouchables, who traditionally were cleaners, garbage collectors, tanners and pig herders.

Members of the lower castes despised, humiliated, and oppressed members of the lower castes, regardless of their behavior and personal merit. Strict rules did not allow representatives of the higher and lower castes to communicate, for it was believed that this spiritually defiled members of a higher caste.

1.3 Stratification measurements

Karl Marx and Max Weber were the first to try to explain the nature of social stratification. Marx believed that in capitalist societies the cause of social stratification is the division into those who own and control the most important means of production - the oppressor capitalist class, or the bourgeoisie, and those who can only sell their labor - the oppressed working class, or the proletariat.

Believing that Marx oversimplified the picture of stratification, Weber argued that there are other division lines in society that do not depend on class affiliation or economic position, and proposed a multidimensional approach to stratification, highlighting three dimensions: class (economic position), status (prestige) and party (power). Each of these dimensions is a separate aspect of social gradation. For the most part, however, these three dimensions are interrelated; they feed and support each other, but still may not be the same. Thus, individual prostitutes and criminals have great economic opportunities, but they do not have prestige and power. University faculty and clergy enjoy high prestige, but they are usually rated relatively low in wealth and power. Some officials may wield considerable power while still receiving low wages and lack of prestige.

P. Sorokin- the person who was the first in the world to give a complete theoretical explanation of social stratification - represented it in the form of a social space in which the vertical and horizontal distances are not equal.

Inequality of distances between statuses is the main property of stratification. It has four measuring rulers, or coordinate axes. All of them are located vertically and next to each other: income, power, education, prestige.

Income measured in rubles or dollars that an individual or family receives over a certain period of time, say, one month or a year.

Education measured by the number of years of study in a public or private school or university.

Power measured by the number of people affected by your decision

Prestige- respect for status, prevailing in public opinion.

In sociology, there are three basic types of stratification:

economic (income),

political (power),

professional (prestige)

and many non-basic, for example, cultural speech and age.

Social status- this is that relative rank, with all the rights, duties and life styles that follow from it, which an individual occupies in the social hierarchy. Status can be assigned to individuals at birth, regardless of the qualities of the individual, as well as on the basis of gender, age, family relationships, origin, or it can be achieved in a competitive struggle, which requires special personal qualities and personal efforts.

Achieved status may be based on education, profession, profitable marriage, etc. In most Western industrial societies, attributes such as a prestigious profession, possession of material goods, appearance and style of dress, manners, have gained more weight in determining personal social status than origin.

Life status presupposes the presence of social stratification along a vertical scale. So, about a person they say that he occupies a high position if he has the ability to control the behavior of other people, by order or through influence; if the basis of his prestige is an important post he holds; if he has earned the respect of his colleagues by his actions. Relative status is the main determinant of people's behavior towards each other. The struggle for status can be considered the primary goal of people.

2. SISOCIAL STRATIFICATION SCHEDULES

Regardless of the forms that social stratification takes, its existence is universal. There are four main systems of social stratification: slavery, castes, clans and classes.

2.1 Slavery

Slavery- an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality ..

Causes of slavery. An inherent feature of slavery is the possession of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, giving free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. Slavery was the least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers, and it was most widespread in agrarian societies.

Usually point to three reasons for slavery. At first, a promissory note, when a person who was unable to pay debts fell into slavery to his creditor. Secondly, violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the injured family as compensation for the grief or damage caused. Thirdly, war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the victors used some of the captives as slaves.

Conditions of slavery. The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. Thus, the Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year, every 50 years. Slaves in ancient Rome tended to buy freedom; in order to raise the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with their master and sold their services to other people. However, in many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to life work were turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

The status of a slave was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves also automatically became slaves, although in some cases the child of a slave who served in a wealthy family was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters. As a rule, slaves had neither property nor power. However, for example, in ancient Rome, slaves had the opportunity to accumulate some kind of property and even achieve a high position in society.

General characteristics of slavery. Although the practice of slavery was different in different regions and in different eras, regardless of whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, war captivity or racial prejudice; whether it was for life or temporary; hereditary or not, the slave was still the property of another person, and the system of laws fixed the status of a slave. Slavery served as the main distinction between people, clearly indicating which person is free (and according to the law receives certain privileges), and which is a slave (having no privileges).

Slavery has evolved historically. There are two forms of it:

patriarchal slavery- the slave had all the rights of the younger member of the family: he lived in the same house with the owners, participated in public life, married free; it was forbidden to kill him;

classic slavery- the slave was finally enslaved; he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not marry and did not have a family, he was considered the property of the owner.

Slavery- the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property of another, and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

2.2 Castes

Castoy is called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes exclusively to his birth.

The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. People who are born in a low-status group will always have that status no matter what they have personally achieved in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore it is practiced here endogamy- marriages within one's own group - and there is a ban on inter-group marriages. To prevent contact between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is believed that communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Indian society is the most prominent example of the caste system. Based not on racial, but on religious principles, this system has existed for almost three millennia. The four main Indian castes, or varnas, are subdivided into thousands of specialized podcasts (jati), with each caste and each jati practicing a particular craft; so, brahmanas can only be priests or scientists, the Kshatriya caste is made up of noble people and warriors; all vaisyas are merchants and skilled artisans; sudras — ordinary workers and peasants; harijan - outcast, untouchable, degrading labor.

Although the Indian government announced the abolition of the caste system in 1949, the power of age-old traditions cannot be overcome so easily, and the caste system continues to be a part of daily life in India. For example, the rituals that a person undergoes at his birth, marriage, death are dictated by caste laws. However, industrialization and urbanization are destroying the caste system, since it is difficult to maintain caste lines in a city crowded with strangers.

Until recently, South Africa was another example of a society in which social stratification was based on a caste system. Europeans of Dutch descent - a large national minority calling themselves Afrikaners, exercising control over the government, police and army, implemented the ideas of their own system of stratification, which they defined as apartheid - the division of races. The country's population was divided into four racial groups: Europeans (whites), Africans (blacks), colored (mixed race), and Asians. Belonging to a specific group determined where this or that person has the right to live, study, work; where a person has the right to swim or watch a movie - it was forbidden for white and non-white to be together in public places. After decades of international trade sanctions, sports boycotts, etc. Afrikaners were forced to liquidate their caste system.

After the abolition of slavery in the United States (January 1, 1863), it was "replaced" by a racial caste system - the birth of a person imposed a lifelong meta on him, and all white Americans, including the poor and uneducated, considered themselves better and higher than any African American origin. This attitude persisted even in the first half of the 20th century, many years after the abolition of slavery. Just as in India and South Africa, upper-caste whites were afraid of getting dirty with blacks, insisting on the existence of separate schools, hotels, restaurants, and even toilets and drinking fountains in public places.

2.3 Clans

Clan- genus or related group related by economic and social ties.

The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is associated with an extensive social network of relatives - a clan. Clan is something like a very ramified family and has similar features: if a clan has a high status, an individual belonging to this clan has the same status; all funds belonging to the clan, poor or rich, equally belong to each member of the clan; loyalty to the clan is a lifelong responsibility of each clan member.

Clans also resemble castes: belonging to a clan is determined by birth and is lifelong. However, unlike castes, marriages between different clans are quite tolerated; they can even be used to create and strengthen alliances between clans, since the obligations imposed by marriage on the spouse's relatives can unite the members of the two clans. The processes of industrialization and urbanization transform clans into more volatile groups, eventually replacing clans with social classes. Clans are especially close in times of danger.

2.4 Classes

Class- a large social group of people who do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income ..

Stratification systems based on slavery, castes and clans are closed. The boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, with the exception of marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open, as it is based primarily on money or material property. Belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, but the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he has managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that define the occupation or profession of an individual depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes.

Consequently, the main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve their social status, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, marital status inherited from birth by a person is capable of determining extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

3. CLASS SYSTEM MODERNSOCIETIES

3.1 Social classes

Sociologists disagree on the sources of social stratification, but they agree that social inequality is a structural aspect of modern life. When sociologists talk about the structuring of social inequality, they mean not only that individuals and social groups differ in the privileges they have, the prestige they receive, and the power they wield. Structuring means that inequality is institutionalized. Inequality does not occur randomly, but in accordance with repetitive, relatively consistent and stable patterns; it is usually passed down from generation to generation, for which individuals and groups with advantages, as a rule, find appropriate ways.

Class- This is a large social group that differs from others in terms of access to public wealth (distribution of benefits in society), power, social prestige, with the same socio-economic status. The term “class” was introduced into scientific circulation at the beginning of the 19th century, replacing terms such as “rank” and “order” that were used to describe the main hierarchical groups in society.

Sociologists adhere to a unified view of the characteristics of the main social classes in modern societies and usually distinguish three classes: higher, lower and middle.

Upper class in modern industrial societies consists mainly of representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties. For example, in the United States, more than 30% of all national wealth is concentrated in the hands of the top 1% of the owners. Owning such a significant property provides members of this class with a solid position that does not depend on competition, falling stock prices, etc. They have the ability to influence economic policy and political decisions, which often helps to maintain and increase family wealth.

Middle class includes employees - middle and top-level officials, engineers, teachers, middle managers, as well as owners of small shops, businesses, farms.

Working class industrial societies traditionally include wage earners in the extractive and manufacturing sectors of the economy, as well as those in low-wage, low-skilled, un-unionized jobs in the service and retail sectors. There is a division of workers into skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled, which, of course, is reflected in the level of wages. In general, the working class is characterized by a lack of property and dependence on the upper classes in terms of obtaining a livelihood - wages. Associated with these conditions are relatively low living standards, limited access to higher education and exclusion from important decision-making areas.

These changes generally led to a decrease in the popularity of class ideologies and a weakening of class conflicts. Representatives of the middle class have become the guarantor of economic, political and social stability in society, the basis for supporting the existing government.

3.2 The importance of social classes

Belonging to a particular social class influences the behavior and thinking of people to a much greater extent than other aspects of social life, it determines their life chances.

At first, to survive, representatives of the upper strata of society need to spend a smaller share of available resources than representatives of the lower social classes. According to research by sociologist Paul Bloomberg, Americans in the top 10 out of 100 in the class hierarchy spend about 11% of their income on food, while those in the bottom 10 spend more than 40% of their money on food.

Secondly, representatives of the upper classes have more intangible benefits. Their children are more likely to attend prestigious educational institutions and are more likely to perform better than children of parents of lower social standing. It can also be added here that the children of upper-class parents are more likely to survive than children of lower-class parents.

Thirdly, wealthy people have a higher average active life than poor people. And according to the American Cancer Society, underprivileged people are at greater risk of contracting and dying from cancer, which is largely determined by lifestyle. After cancer detection, about 37% of low-income patients and about 50% of middle- and high-income patients can survive for 5 years.

Fourth, people with higher incomes experience greater satisfaction from life than people of less well-off, since belonging to a particular social class affects the lifestyle - the amount and nature of consumption of goods and services. Convenience foods for quick meals - quick meals, potato chips, frozen pizza, and hamburgers - are more likely to be on the menu of low-income families. People from less affluent segments of society drink less vodka, expensive whiskey and imported wine, but they consume more beer and cheap spirits. Compared to well-to-do families, low-income families spend more free time watching TV.

4. SOCIAL MOBILITY

4.1 Forms of social mobility

In a stratification system, individuals or groups can move from one level (layer) to another. This process is called social mobility. Social inequality implies differences in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities, and social stratification is a structured system of inequality, social mobility is manifested in the movement of individuals or groups from one social status to another.

There are at least two main reasons for the existence of social mobility in a society. At first, societies are changing, and social change is reshaping the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Secondly, while the elite may monopolize educational opportunities, they are unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability. Therefore, the upper strata are inevitably replenished with talented descendants from the lower ones.

Allocate many forms of social mobility: vertical and horizontal, intergenerational and intragenerational, etc.

Vertical mobility- a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase and decrease in his social status. Horizontal mobility - a change in social status that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

Intergenerational mobility is determined by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the careers of both.

Intra-generational mobility involves a comparison of the social status of a person over a long period of time.

CONCLUSION

Social stratification expresses the social heterogeneity of society, the inequality that exists in it, the unequal social status of people and their groups. Social stratification is understood as the process and result of the differentiation of society into various social groups (strata, strata) that differ in their social status. The criteria for dividing society into strata can be very diverse, moreover, both objective and subjective. But most often today, one distinguishes profession, income, property, participation in power, education, prestige, self-esteem by a person of his social position. According to researchers, the middle class of a modern industrial society determines the stability of the social system and at the same time provides it with dynamism, since the middle class is, first of all, a highly productive and highly qualified, proactive and enterprising worker. Russia is classified as a mixed type of stratification. Our middle class is at the stage of formation, and this process is of key and broad significance for the formation of a new social structure.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Social inequality in society. The concept of social stratification as a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in society in a certain historical period of time. The essence of social mobility, its dynamics.

test, added 08/16/2014

The concept of social class and social stratum. Historical types of stratification. Slavery, castes, estates, classes. Class typology. The essence of social inequality and its causes. Measuring inequality. Social mobility.

abstract, added 03/23/2004

Consideration of the main theories of social inequality. Description of the factors and specifics of inequality in modern Russian society. Study of social stratification, socio-economic differentiation of labor. The attitude of the population to this problem.

term paper added on 10/31/2014

Principles of Sociology. The criterion for assessing the position of a person in society. The concept of wealth, power and social prestige. The problem of equality is inequality. Types of stratification: estate, slavery, caste, class. Universal stratification of modern societies.

presentation added 03/27/2014

Study of the social system of society: characteristics and development trends. The main functions of social stratification. Analysis of contradictions in society. Social structure concept. Features and signs of a social group. Types of social mobility.

term paper added 03/05/2017

Study of the features of social structure and social stratification. Distinctive features of certain types of communities: statistical, real, mass, group. The nature of social groups and their classification. The main functions of social stratification.

test, added 09/28/2010

Stratification concepts, social differentiation of populations of people into classes in a hierarchical rank. The main forms of stratification and the relationship between them, the causes of social inequality. The balance of inequality, equality and fairness.

abstract, added 11/17/2010

Startification terms, historical types: slavery, castes, estates and classes. Stratification profile and stratification profile. Classes in Russian society. New "middle" and "poor". The Russian oligarchy is one of the cardinal causes of Russia's regression.

abstract, added 01/22/2010

The geological concept of "stratification" (vertical layers of the Earth) in sociology: structured inequalities between groups of people, differentiation of the population population into classes in a hierarchical rank. Stratification term and social strata (strata).

abstract, added 03/25/2009

The concept of social stratification. The historical process of embedding social positions in a certain social hierarchy, the emergence of castes, estates, classes. The content and representatives of the main theories of social stratification, its relationship with religion.

Regardless of the forms that social stratification takes, its existence is universal. There are four main systems of social stratification: slavery, castes, clans and classes.

Slavery - an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality ..

Causes of slavery . An inherent feature of slavery is the possession of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, giving free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. The least typical slavery was for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers, and it was most widespread in agrarian societies.

There are usually three reasons for slavery. First, a promissory note, when a person who was unable to pay debts fell into slavery to his creditor. Secondly, violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the injured family as compensation for the grief or damage caused. Thirdly, war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the victors used some of the captives as slaves.

Conditions of slavery. The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. Thus, the Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year, every 50 years. Slaves in ancient Rome tended to buy freedom; in order to raise the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with their master and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). However, in many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to life work were turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

Slavery in the New World originates from the service of Europeans under the treaty. This service in the New World was a cross between an employee contract and slavery.

Many Europeans who decided to start a new life in the American colonies were unable to pay for the ticket. The captains of ships sailing to America agreed to carry such passengers on credit, provided that after they arrived at the site, someone would be found to pay their debt to the captain. Thus, the poor got the opportunity to get to the American colonies, the captain received payment for their transportation, and the wealthy colonists received free servants for a certain period.

General characteristics of slavery . Although the practice of slavery was different in different regions and in different eras, regardless of whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, war captivity or racial prejudice; whether it was for life or temporary; hereditary or not, the slave was still the property of another person, and the system of laws fixed the status of a slave. Slavery served as the main distinction between people, clearly indicating which person is free (and according to the law receives certain privileges), and which is a slave (having no privileges).

Slavery has evolved historically. There are two forms of it:

patriarchal slavery - the slave had all the rights of a younger member of the family: he lived in the same house with the owners, participated in public life, married free; it was forbidden to kill him;

classical slavery - the slave was finally enslaved; he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not marry and did not have a family, he was considered the property of the owner.

Slavery- the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property of another, and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

Castoy is called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes exclusively to his birth ..

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy is practiced here - marriages within their own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent contact between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is believed that communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Although the Indian government announced the abolition of the caste system in 1949, the power of age-old traditions cannot be overcome so easily, and the caste system continues to be a part of daily life in India. For example, the rituals that a person goes through at his birth, marriage, death, are dictated by caste laws. However, industrialization and urbanization are destroying the caste system, since it is difficult to maintain caste lines in a city crowded with strangers.

Until recently, South Africa was another example of a society in which social stratification was based on a caste system. Europeans of Dutch descent - a large national minority calling themselves Afrikaners, exercising control over the government, police and army, implemented ideas about their own system of stratification, which they defined as apartheid - the division of races. The country's population was divided into four racial groups: Europeans (whites), Africans (blacks), colored (mixed race), and Asians. Belonging to a specific group determined where this or that person has the right to live, study, work; where a person has the right to swim or watch a movie - it was forbidden for white and non-white to be together in public places. After decades of international trade sanctions, sports boycotts, etc. Afrikaners were forced to liquidate their caste system.

Clan - genus or related group linked by economic and social ties ..

The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is associated with an extensive social network of relatives - a clan. A clan is something like a very ramified family and has similar features: if a clan has a high status, an individual belonging to this clan has the same status; all funds belonging to the clan, poor or rich, equally belong to each member of the clan; loyalty to the clan is a lifelong responsibility of each clan member.

Clans are especially close in times of danger, as the following example shows.

Class - a large social group of people who do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income ..

Stratification systems based on slavery, castes and clans are closed. The boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open, as it is based primarily on money or material property. Belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, but the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he has managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that determine the occupation or profession of an individual depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes.

Consequently, the main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve their social position, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, the marital status inherited from birth by a person is capable of determining extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

SOCIAL MOBILITY AND ITS TYPES

The concept of "social mobility" was introduced by P. Sorokin. Social mobility means the movement of individuals and groups from one social strata, communities to others, which is associated with a change in the position of an individual or group in the system of social stratification. The possibilities and dynamics of social mobility differ in different historical conditions.

The options for social mobility are varied:

individual and collective;

vertical and horizontal;

intragenerational and intergenerational.

Vertical mobility is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status, a transition to a higher or lower class position. It distinguishes between ascending and descending branches (eg, career and lumpenization). Horizontal mobility is a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

Intra-generational (intergenerational) mobility means that a person changes position in the stratification system throughout his life. Intergenerational or intergenerational - assumes that children are in a higher position than their parents.

P. Sorokin considers the following social institutions to be channels or "lifts" of social mobility: army, church, educational institutions, family, political and professional organizations, mass media, etc.

Social stratification is based on social differentiation - the division of people into groups that are related to each other both on a horizontal and vertical scale. The most common is the social stratification of society based on the following criteria:

income is the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received over a certain period of time;
wealth- movable and immovable property, as well as the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash savings;
power- the ability and ability to manage other people;
prestige- the degree of respect in society for a particular profession.

History knows various systems of social stratification.

V open systems it is enough for individuals to simply change their social status. The openness of the system means the ability for any member of society to climb (descend) the social ladder in accordance with their abilities and efforts. In such systems, the achieved status means no less than the one assigned to a person from birth. In modern society, any individual, regardless of gender and origin, can, at the cost of more or less efforts, significantly increase his original status, for example, starting from scratch, become the president of the country.

Closed systems stratifications, on the other hand, presuppose the unconditional primacy of the assigned status. Here it is almost impossible for an individual to change the status received by virtue of origin. Such systems are characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past. For example, the caste system that functioned in India until 1950 prescribed strict boundaries between the four castes, the belonging of individuals to which was determined by origin. At the same time, members of each caste were prescribed a strictly defined occupation, their own rituals, food system, rules for dealing with each other and with a woman, and a way of life. The veneration of the representatives of the higher castes and contempt for the lower ones were enshrined in religious institutions and traditions. There were cases of transition from caste to caste, but as isolated exceptions to the rule.

There are four main systems of social stratification:

slavery;
caste;
estates;

Slavery characterized by the possession of some people by others. Slavery was most widespread in agrarian societies, and slavery was least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers.

The conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, giving free citizens the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. The Israelites freed their slaves in the jubilee year - every 50 years. In ancient Rome, slaves tended to buy freedom; in order to raise the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with the owner and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). Stories are known of cases when a rich slave began to lend money to his master and in the end the master fell into slavery to his former slave. In many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to hard labor were turned into slaves and worked in Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

Slave status was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves also automatically became slaves. In some cases, the child of a slave who served all his life in a wealthy family was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters.

Castes. In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; in other words, the basis of the caste system is the prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. Those who by birth belong to a low-status group will always have this status regardless of what they have personally achieved in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy is practiced here (marriages within one's own group) and intergroup marriages are prohibited, complex rules have been developed according to which communication with representatives of lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Estates system received the greatest distribution in feudal Europe and some traditional societies of Asia, for example, in Japan. Its main characteristic is the presence of several (usually three) stable social strata, to which individuals belong by origin and the transition between which is very difficult, although in exceptional cases it is possible. The basis of the estate system is the legal organization of society, which provided for the inheritance of titles and statuses, therefore, marriages were usually concluded within the same class. The fundamental difference between estates was not so much economic prosperity as access to political and social power and socially significant knowledge. Each estate possessed a monopoly on certain types of occupations and professions. The estate system is a closed system, although occasionally an individual change of status was allowed: as a result of inter-estates marriages, at the behest of a monarch or feudal lord - as a reward for special merits, when taking monastic vows or receiving the dignity of a clergyman.

Class system much more open than systems of stratification based on slavery, castes and estates, where the boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they do not leave people the opportunity to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is based primarily on money or material property. Although belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, however, the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he has managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that define an individual's occupation or profession according to birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes. Consequently, this system of social stratification is characterized by the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up (down) the social ladder. Having the potential for social advancement, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, the marital status inherited by a person from birth can determine extremely disadvantageous conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, or provide him with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

Ideas about social mobility

The concept of social mobility was first introduced by P. Sorokin, who defined it as "any transition of an individual, social object or value, created or modified through activity, from one social position to another." Sorokin considered mobility as one of the necessary social functions. Downward mobility is caused by the pushing out of less successful and less competitive individuals in the competitive struggle, and at the level of group mobility - by a decrease due to objective factors in the social prestige of specific professions, the loss of popularity by political parties, etc.

Social mobility is called the movement of individuals in the system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two reasons for the existence of social mobility in a society. First, societies are changing, and social change is reshaping the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Second, while the elite can monopolize educational opportunities, they are unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata inevitably replenish with talented descendants from the lower.

Social mobility comes in many forms. She may be:

vertical is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if a car mechanic becomes a director of a car service, this is a manifestation of upward mobility, and if a car mechanic becomes a cleaner, such a movement would be an indicator of downward mobility;
horizontal - a change in the position of an individual, which does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status. For example, if an auto mechanic gets a job as a locksmith, this movement would mean horizontal mobility;
intergenerational (intergenerational), determined by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the careers of both (for example, according to the rank of their profession at approximately the same age). Research shows that a significant part, perhaps even the majority, of the Russian population moves at least slightly up or down in the class hierarchy in each generation;
intragenerational (intragenerational), which involves comparing the social status of an individual over a long period of time. As evidenced by the research results, many Russians changed their occupation during their lives. However, the mobility of the majority is limited. Moving a short social distance is the rule, but a long distance is the exception.

For open systems of stratification, vertical mobility is a fairly common phenomenon, if we are not talking about dizzying leaps from the bottom to the elite, but about moving step by step. For example, the grandfather is a peasant, the father is a village teacher, the son moves to the city and defends his thesis.

In closed systems, social mobility is practically impossible. For example, in caste and estate societies, the social norm was, on the one hand, tens of generations of shoemakers, tanners, merchants, serfs, and on the other, long genealogical chains of noble families. The monotony of such a social reality is indicated by the names of streets cited in historical sources, for example, Khlebny lane, Kuznetsky Most street in Moscow. Craftsmen passed on their status and profession from generation to generation, and even lived close by.

Types of stratification systems

Social inequality can be represented in the form of a scale, where at one pole - the rich, people who own the maximum amount of scarce resources, on the other - the poor, respectively, with minimal access to public goods. Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty. Under absolute poverty it is understood a state in which an individual, on the income received, is not able to satisfy even basic needs (for food, clothing, housing) or to satisfy them in an amount that ensures only biological survival. The inability to maintain socially accepted "decent" living standards is seen as relative poverty.

Poverty is not only the economic and social state of people, but also a special way, a lifestyle that is passed down from generation to generation and limits the possibilities for normal civilized development. In Russia for the characteristics scale of poverty, which is determined by the proportion of the population of the country that is in the officially recorded traits, or poverty line... commonly used indicator living wage. Considering that at present about 30% of the Russian population lives at or below the poverty line. an important task of the state is to reduce the incidence of poverty.

To measure inequality, P. Sorokin introduced two parameters:

stratification height - the value of the social distance between the highest and lowest status in a given society;
stratification profile - the ratio of the number of social positions held in the hierarchy of values of the status stratum (stratum).

It should be noted that there is the following pattern: the higher the level of development of society, the lower the height of stratification, and vice versa. So. v developed societies stratification profile approaching diamond-shaped form due to the large middle class, and in the backward - to the pyramidal, or "conical". The Russian stratification profile rather resembles a triangle with a vertically projecting acute angle.

An important empirical indicator of social inequality is decile factor, which is understood as the ratio of incomes of the richest 10% to the lowest-paid 10%. So, in highly developed industrial countries it is 4-7, where even the approximation of this coefficient to 8 is considered as an indicator of impending social upheavals.

In general, despite the differences in the views of different sociological schools and trends, it can be noted that social inequality performs a positive function in society, since it serves as a stimulus for the progress of social development.

Under social stratification system it is customary to understand the totality of methods that support the unevenness of this distribution in a particular society. In sociology, there are four main historical types of stratification systems: slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies in which social movement from one stratum to another is either completely prohibited or significantly limited. The fourth type belongs to open a society where the transitions from the lower strata to the higher are quite real.

1. Slavery is a form of economic, social and legal enslavement of people. This is the only form of social relations in history in which one person is the property of another, deprived of all rights and freedoms.

2. Caste system - a stratification system, which assumes a lifelong attachment of a person to a certain stratum on an ethnic, religious or economic basis. Man owes his membership in this system exclusively to birth. India is a classic example of a caste system, where detailed regulations existed for each caste. So. according to the canons of this system, belonging to a particular caste was inherited, and therefore the possibility of transition from one caste to another was prohibited.

3. The estate system is a stratification system that presupposes the legal assignment of a person to a certain stratum. At the same time, the rights and obligations of each stratum were determined by law and sanctified by religion. Membership in the estate was mainly inherited, but as an exception it could be acquired for money or donated.

The estate organization of the European feudal society was subdivided into two upper classes(nobility and clergy) and unprivileged third estate(merchants, artisans, peasants). The barriers between estates were quite tough, so social mobility was carried out not so much between, as within the estates, which included many ranks, ranks, strata, and professions.

4. The class system is an open-type stratification system, where, unlike previous closed-type systems, class membership is determined primarily by place in the system of social production, ownership of property, as well as the availability of abilities, education, and the level of income received.

The considered stratification system is generally recognized, but not the only classification. In reality, all stratification systems are closely intertwined and complement each other.

Introduction

Relevance: Society is a complex system that exists over a fairly long time period, dynamically developing throughout its entire existence. One of the natural processes taking place in society is the division of individuals according to various criteria, in a broad sense, called social stratification.

The reasons, goals and objectives can be completely different, depending on the society in which we observe this process, but it is one of the main signs of the existence of society. The topic of social stratification was relevant and remains so in any society. However, the theory of social stratification was proposed only at the beginning of the 20th century, and therefore has not yet been sufficiently studied at the moment.

Such scholars as Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin, Vladimir Ivanovich Ilyin, Maximilian Karl Emil Weber, Baron Anthony Giddens, and others were engaged in the study of the issue of social stratification. Each of them contributed to the study of the concept of social stratification.

The purpose of this work is to highlight the topic of stratification of society, the concept of stratification of society, its types and tasks. According to this goal, the following work tasks can be distinguished:

Expand the concept of stratification of society, its types and essence.

Identify the causes of inequality, as well as reveal the historical types of stratification.

Show the attitude of the individual to social inequality.

Social stratification systems

Distinguish between open and closed systems of stratification.

A social structure whose members can change their status relatively easily is called an open system of stratification. In open systems of stratification, each member of society can change their status, rise or fall on the social ladder based on their own efforts and abilities. Modern societies, experiencing the need for qualified and competent specialists capable of managing complex social, political and economic processes, provide a fairly free movement of individuals in the system of stratification.

An open society is also called a society of equal opportunities, where everyone has a chance to rise to the highest levels of the social hierarchy.

A structure whose members can hardly change their status is called a closed system of stratification. An example of a closed system of stratification is the caste organization of India. A closed society is characterized by a rigid social structure that prevents people from moving not only up the social ladder, but also down. In such a society, social transfers from lower strata to higher strata are either completely prohibited or significantly limited. Everyone knows their place in society, and this knowledge is passed on from generation to generation. Social statuses become inheritable. Thanks to this centuries-old habituation to one's social position, not only a special psychology of fatalism, humility before one's fate is formed, but also a special kind of solidarity with the class and estate. Corporate spirit, class ethics, code of honor - these concepts came from a closed society.

There are four main types of stratification in sociology - slavery, caste, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, the last type - open ones.

Slavery is historically the first system of social stratification. Slavery originated in ancient times in Egypt, Babylon, China, Greece, Rome and has survived in a number of regions almost to the present day. It existed in the United States back in the 19th century. Slavery was the least typical for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers, and it was most widespread in agrarian societies.

Slavery is an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality.

Slavery has evolved historically. The primitive form, or patriarchal slavery, and the developed form, or classical slavery, differ significantly. In the first case, the slave had all the rights of the younger member of the family: he lived in the same house with the owners, participated in public life, married free, inherited the owner's property. It was forbidden to kill him. An example is servitude in Russia in the X-XII centuries. At the mature stage (under classical slavery), the slave was finally enslaved: he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not inherit anything, did not marry and did not have a family. He was allowed to be killed. He did not own property, but he himself was considered the property of the owner ("talking tool"). This form includes ancient slavery in Ancient Greece and plantation slavery in the United States.

The following reasons for slavery are usually indicated.

First, a promissory note, when a person who was unable to pay debts fell into slavery to his creditor.

Secondly, violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the injured family as compensation for the grief or damage caused.

Thirdly, war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another, and the victors used some of the captives as slaves. Historian Gerda Lerner notes that there were more women among the slaves captured in hostilities; they were used as concubines, for reproduction and as additional labor.

Thus, slavery was the result of a military defeat, a crime or an unpaid debt, and not a sign of some natural quality inherent in some people.

Castes, like slavery, the caste system characterize a closed society and rigid stratification. It is not as ancient as the slave system, and less widespread. If almost all countries went through slavery, of course, to varying degrees, then castes are found only in India and partly in Africa. India is a classic example of a caste society. It arose on the ruins of the slave system in the first centuries of the new era. A caste is a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes exclusively to birth. He cannot pass from one caste to another during his lifetime. To do this, he needs to be born again. The caste position of a person is fixed by the Hindu religion (it is now understandable why castes are not widespread). According to her canons, people live more than one life. A person's previous life determines the nature of his new birth and the caste into which he falls at the same time - the lower one or vice versa.

Since in the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong, the basis of the caste system is the prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. People who are born in a low-status group will always have that status no matter what they have personally achieved in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, so endogamy is practiced here - marriages within their own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent contact between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is believed that communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste. Estates The estates are the form of stratification that precedes classes. In the feudal societies that existed in Europe from the 4th to the 14th century, people were divided into estates. An estate is a social group that has enshrined custom or legal law and inherited rights and obligations.

The estate system, which includes several strata, is characterized by a hierarchy expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. The classic example of the estate organization was feudal Europe, where at the turn of the 14th - 15th centuries society was divided into the upper classes (nobility and clergy) and the unprivileged third class (artisans, merchants, peasants). And in the X-XIII centuries there were three main estates: the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry. In Russia, from the second half of the 18th century, the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the peasantry and the bourgeoisie (middle urban strata) was established.

Estates were based on land ownership. The rights and obligations of each class were enshrined in legal law and sanctified by religious doctrine. Membership in the estate was determined by inheritance. Social barriers between estates were quite tough, so social mobility existed not so much between estates as within estates. Each estate included many layers, ranks, levels, professions, ranks. So, only nobles could be engaged in public service. The aristocracy was considered a military class (chivalry).

A characteristic feature of the estates is the presence of social symbols and signs: titles, uniforms, orders, titles. Classes and castes did not have state distinctive signs, although they were distinguished by clothing, adornments, norms and rules of behavior, and a ritual of conversion. In feudal society, the upper class - the nobility - had their own symbols and signs, bestowed on them by the state.

Titles are verbal designations established by law for the official and estate-clan status of their owners, which briefly determined the legal status. In Russia in the 19th century, there were such titles as "General", "State Councilor", "Chamberlain", "Count", "Adjutant Wing", "State Secretary", "Excellency" and "Lordship". The core of the title system was rank - the rank of each civil servant (military, civilian or courtier). Before Peter I, the concept of "rank" meant any position, honorary title, social status of a person. In 1722 Peter I established a new system of ranks known as the "Table of Ranks". Each type of public service - military, civilian and court - was divided into 14 ranks. The class denoted the rank of the position, which was called the class rank. The name "official" was assigned to its owner.

Only the nobility - local and servicemen was allowed to public service. Both were hereditary: the title of nobility was passed on to the wife, children and distant descendants in the male line. The noble status was usually formalized in the form of a genealogy, family coat of arms, portraits of ancestors, tradition, titles and orders. So in the minds gradually formed a sense of the continuity of generations, pride in their family and the desire to preserve its good name. Taken together, they constituted the concept of "noble honor", an important component of which was the respect and trust of others to an unblemished name. The noble origin of a hereditary nobleman was determined by the merits of his family to the Fatherland.

Classes Stratification systems based on slavery, caste and estates are closed. The boundaries dividing people are so clear and firm that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, with the exception of marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open, as it is based primarily on money or material property.

Belonging to a class is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, but the social class of an individual during his life can change depending on what he has managed (or failed) to achieve in life.

Belonging to the social stratum in the slave-owning, caste and estate-feudal societies was officially recorded - by legal or religious norms. In a class society, the situation is different: no legal documents regulate the place of the individual in the social structure. Each person is free to move, if he has ability, education or income, from one class to another.

In sociology, class is understood in two aspects - broad and narrow.

In a broad sense, a class is understood as a large social group of people who own or do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income.

Since private property arises during the period of the birth of the state, it is believed that already in the Ancient East and in ancient Greece there were two opposite classes - slaves and slave owners. Feudalism and capitalism are no exception - and here there have been and exist antagonistic classes: the exploiters and the exploited. This is the point of view of Karl Marx, which is adhered to today not only by domestic, but also by many foreign sociologists.

In a narrow sense, a class is any social stratum in modern society that differs from others in income, education, power and prestige (see 13.2. Criteria for belonging to a stratum) This point of view prevails in foreign sociology, and now acquires the rights of citizenship also in domestic one.

So, a very important conclusion can be drawn: in the historical sense, classes are the youngest and most open type of stratification.

Indeed, belonging to the social stratum in the slave-owning, caste and estate-feudal societies was fixed by legal or religious norms. In pre-revolutionary Russia, every person knew what class he was in. People, as they say, were attributed to one or another social stratum. This is not the case in a class society. No one is credited anywhere. The state does not deal with the issues of social consolidation of its citizens. The only controller is the public opinion of the people, which is guided by customs, established practices, income, lifestyle and standards of behavior. Therefore, it is very difficult to accurately and unambiguously determine the number of classes in a particular country, the number of strata or strata into which they are divided, and the belonging of people to strata.

From top to bottom in society are the strata of the rich, well-to-do (middle class) and poor people. Large social strata are also called classes, within which we can find smaller subdivisions, actually called layers, or strata.

The rich hold the most privileged positions and the most prestigious professions. As a rule, they are better paid and are associated with mental work and the performance of managerial functions. Chiefs, kings, kings, presidents, political leaders, business leaders, academics and artists are the elite of society.

The wealthy strata (middle class) in modern society include doctors, lawyers, teachers, qualified employees, the middle and petty bourgeoisie.

To the lower strata - unskilled workers, unemployed, beggars. The working class, according to modern views, is an independent group that occupies an intermediate position between the middle and lower classes.

The wealthy from the upper class have a higher level of education and more power. The lower-class poor have little power, income, or education. Thus, the prestige of the profession (occupation), the amount of power and the level of education are added to income as the main criterion of stratification.

In general, the main characteristic of the class system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve their social status, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, marital status inherited from birth by a person is capable of determining extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

In addition to the presented stratification systems, there are also physical-genetic, statocratic, social-professional; cultural-symbolic and cultural-normative.

The physical-genetic stratification system is based on the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or a group is determined by gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity. Accordingly, the weaker, with physical disabilities are considered flawed and occupy a degraded social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or its actual use, and then fixed in customs and rituals. This "natural" stratification system dominated the primitive community, but continues to reproduce to this day. It manifests itself especially strongly in communities struggling for physical survival or expansion of their living space. The most prestigious here is the one who is able to carry out violence against nature and people or to resist such violence: a healthy young man-breadwinner in a peasant community living by the fruits of primitive manual labor; courageous warrior of the Spartan state; a true Aryan of the National Socialist army, capable of producing healthy offspring.

The etacratic system (from French and Greek - "state power") has some similarities with the estate system. In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities for mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to extract from their positions of power. The degree of material well-being, the lifestyle of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel are connected here with the formal ranks that these groups occupy in the corresponding power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a derivative role.

The scale and nature of differentiation (the scope of power) in the etacratic system are under the control of the state bureaucracy. At the same time, hierarchies can be fixed formally and legally - through bureaucratic tables of ranks, military charters, assignment of categories to state institutions - or they can remain outside the sphere of state legislation (a clear example is the system of the Soviet party nomenclature, the principles of which are not spelled out in any laws). The formal freedom of members of society (with the exception of dependence on the state), the absence of automatic inheritance of positions of power also distinguish the etacratic system from the system of estates.

The etakratic system is revealed with the greater force, the more authoritarian the state rule takes. In ancient times, vivid examples of the etacratic system were observed in the societies of Asian despotism (China, India, Cambodia), located, however, not only in Asia (but, for example, in Peru, Egypt). In the twentieth century, it is actively establishing itself in the so-called "socialist societies" and, perhaps, even plays a decisive role in them.

In the socio-professional stratification system, groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. A special role is played by the qualification requirements for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, skills and abilities. The approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of certificates (diplomas, ranks, licenses, patents), which fix the level of qualifications and the ability to perform certain types of activities. The effectiveness of qualification certificates is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history.

Social and professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor. This is the structure of craft workshops in the medieval city and the category grid in modern state industry, a system of certificates and diplomas of education, a system of scientific degrees and titles that open the way to more prestigious jobs.

In the cultural-symbolic stratification system, differentiation arises from differences in access to socially significant information, unequal opportunities to filter and interpret this information, the ability to be a carrier of sacred knowledge (mystical or scientific). In ancient times, this role was assigned to priests, magicians and shamans, in the Middle Ages - to the ministers of the Church, interpreters of sacred texts, who make up the bulk of the literate population, in the New Age - to scientists, technocrats and party ideologists. Claims for communication with divine forces, for possession of scientific truth, for the expression of state interests existed always and everywhere. And a higher position in this respect is occupied by those who have the best opportunities to manipulate the consciousness and actions of other members of society, who can prove their rights to true understanding better than others, and who own the best symbolic capital.

The cultural-normative type of the stratification system is characterized by differentiation based on differences of respect and prestige arising from the comparison of lifestyles and norms of behavior followed by a given person or group. Attitudes towards physical and mental work, consumer tastes and habits, communication manners and etiquette, a special language (professional terminology, local dialect, criminal jargon) - all this forms the basis of social division. Moreover, there is not only a distinction between “ours” and “foes”, but also a ranking of groups (“noble - not noble”, “decent - not decent”, “elite - ordinary people - bottom”).

The noble manners of a gentleman, the idle pastime of an aristocrat, the selfless asceticism of a religious ascetic, the oratory of an ideological leader are not only signs of a high social position. They often turn into normative guidelines, models of social action and begin to perform the functions of moral regulation, which determines this type of stratification relations. And this applies not only to the isolation of the elite, but also to the differentiation of all middle and lower strata. In the peasant community, where formally everyone is equal to each other, there are “serviceable owners” who live “according to custom”, “according to their conscience”, and idlers, renegades, “tumbleweeds”. Its own normative culture, its own patterns of behavior and its own "aristocracy" are at the very "bottom", within the underworld. The emergence of countercultures and the so-called "antisocial behavior" is also in many ways a product of moral regulation and ideological control exercised in a given community.

In reality, stratification types are intertwined, complement each other. So, for example, the socio-professional hierarchy in the form of an officially enshrined division of labor not only plays an independent role, but significantly affects the structure of almost any other stratification system.

»Class social stratification

Class social stratification

Go back to

Class stratification is characteristic of the open type of society. It differs significantly from both the caste system and the estate system.

The differences in class stratification are manifested in the following:

1) classes are not created on the basis of religious doctrine or on the basis of legal norms;
2) class membership is not inherited;
3) the boundaries between classes are rather blurred than rigidly delineated; classes are mobile;
4) the division into classes depends on economic differences (associated with inequality in the ownership or control of material resources);
5) the level of social mobility is higher in a class society (there are no formal restrictions, but mobility is constrained by starting opportunities and aspirations).

A class is a social group of people who own or do not own the means of production, who occupy a certain place in the system of social division of labor and are characterized by a specific way of earning income.

The most influential theoretical approaches to defining class stratification belong to K. Marx and M. Weber. According to Marx, a class is a community of people in direct relation to the means of production. He singled out in society at various stages of its existence the exploited and exploited.

The stratification of society according to Karl Marx is one-dimensional and is associated only with classes, since its main basis is the economic position, and all other foundations (rights, privileges, power, influence) fit into the space of the economic situation, are combined with it.

M. Weber defined classes as a group of people with a similar position in the market economy, receiving similar economic rewards and having similar life chances. Class divisions stem from economic differences not related to property. Such sources include professional skill, rare specialty, high qualifications, intellectual property ownership, etc.

M. Weber provided not only class stratification, considering it only a part of the structuring necessary for a complex capitalist society. Weber proposed a three-dimensional division: if economic differences (in terms of wealth) give rise to class stratification, then spiritual (in terms of prestige) - status, and political (in terms of access to power) - party stratification. In the first case, we are talking about the life chances of social strata, in the second - about the image and style of their life, in the third - about the possession of power and the influence on it. Most sociologists consider the Weberian scheme to be more flexible, corresponding to modern society.

Weber's views formed the basis of modern stratification. At present, the generally accepted sociological model of the stratification structure of society in some countries (for example, in Great Britain) is the division of the population into three classes - working, intermediate, and upper.

Manual workers belong to the working class, low-level non-physical workers are classified as the intermediate class, managers and professionals are in the upper class.

In a country as developed from a sociological point of view as the United States, different sociologists propose different class typologies. In one there are seven, in the other six, in the third five, etc. social strata.

The first typology of classes in the United States was proposed in the 40s. XX century. American sociologist Lloyd Warner:

- the upper-upper class included the so-called "old families". They consisted of the most successful businessmen and those who were called professionals. They lived in privileged parts of the city;
- the lower-upper class in terms of material well-being was not inferior to the upper-upper class, but did not include old clan families;
- the upper-middle class consisted of property owners and professionals who had less material wealth in comparison with those from the upper two classes, but they actively participated in the public life of the city and lived in rather comfortable districts;
- the lower-middle class was made up of lower employees and skilled workers;
- the upper-lower class included low-skilled workers employed in local factories and living in relative prosperity;
- the lower-lower class consisted of those who are usually called the "social bottom" - these are the inhabitants of basements, attics, slums and other places of little use for life. They constantly felt an inferiority complex due to extreme poverty and constant humiliation. In all two-part words, the first denotes a stratum or layer, and the second - the class to which this layer belongs.

The middle class (with its inherent strata) is always distinguished from the working class. The working class may include the non-working, unemployed, homeless, the poor, etc. As a rule, highly skilled workers are included not in the working class, but in the middle class, but in its lower stratum, which is filled mainly by low-skilled workers of mental labor - office workers ...

Another option is possible: workers are not included in the middle class, but two strata are left in the general working class. Specialists are included in the next layer of the middle class (the term “specialist” implies at least college education).

The upper stratum of the middle class is filled mainly by "professionals" - specialists who, as a rule, have a university education and great practical experience, are distinguished by high skill in their field, engaged in creative work and belonging to the so-called category of self-employed, that is, having their own practice , their business (lawyers, doctors, scientists, teachers, etc.).

The middle class is a unique phenomenon in the world history of the stratification system of society. It appeared in the XX century. The middle class acts as a stabilizer of society, and this is its specific function. The larger it is, the more stable is the favorable political and economic atmosphere in society.

Representatives of the middle class are always interested in preserving the order that gives them such opportunities for realization and prosperity. The thinner and weaker the middle class, the closer to each other the polar points of stratification (lower and upper classes), the more likely their collision. As a rule, the middle class includes those who have economic independence, that is, they own an enterprise, firm, office, private practice, their own business, as well as scientists, priests, doctors, lawyers, middle managers, the petty bourgeoisie, in other words, social basis of society.